Working Overtime and Job Satisfaction in Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao

[pic] Working overtime and Job satisfaction in Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao Name: Yujie Hou Relation No. 74759 Mentor: Sandy Loup Internship in Front Desk & Executive Lounge, Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao, China Stenden University Leeuwarden The Netherlands Bachelor of International Hospitality Management September, 2012 Table of content Declaration of own work3 Introduction4 Chapter 1. Company Description5 Chapter 2. Project Exploration8 Chapter 3. Literature Review9 3. 1 Working overtime9 3. People who work overtime12 3. 3 The reasons of working long hours12 3. 4 Job satisfaction and working overtime13 3. 5 Conceptual model. 15 3. 6 Problem definition16 Chapter 4. Methodology16 4. 1 Research design16 4. 2 Instrument design17 4. 3 Limitations of Research Methods17 4. 4 Data Analyze18 Bibliography19 Appendix 1. 21 Appendix 2. 22 Declaration of own work 1. This work is composed by me. 2. This work has not been accepted in any previous application for a degree or diploma, by me or anyone else. 3. The work of which this is a record is done well and truly by me. 4.All verbatim extracts have been distinguished by quotation marks and the sources of my information have been specifically acknowledged. Date: September 01, 2012 Name: Yujie Hou Signature: Introduction In 1993-1994, 23% of females and 27% of males claimed to have worked unpaid overtime (Bell and Hart, 1999). The Beijing Bureau of Statistics said employed people in China's capital worked for 5. 9 days, or 47. 2 hours, a week on average (Xinhua News Agency, 2006). An online survey of 15,000 people from a well-known Chinese job-hunting website shows a shocking figure that over 40% of the respondents worked vertime without paid. An incredible reality from Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions reported that more than 50% of Hong Kong women who have full-time jobs work overtime at least two hours every day. Why do Chinese people work overtime become an ordinary phenomenon? How do they feel about working overtime? How do Chinese feel about having to work overtime? Do they feel happy? Can the company get more benefits from employee working overtime? The relationship between overtime working and job satisfaction and how working overtime involves in job satisfaction could be discovered.On behalf of understanding, measuring and improving job satisfaction is an advantage competitive in hotel management team. Therefore, this project mainly focuses on figuring out how working overtime impacts on job satisfaction, and in order to help managers in Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao to get a better method of measuring working overtime and improving employee satisfaction. First of all, a company description is given in the report. In this chapter, not only the general knowledge of the company itself will be introduced, but also the figures of staff turn over, salary of employees and a SWOT analysis are given.The following chapter Project Exploration high lighting the purpose of this management project, furthermore, the litterateurs are reviewed in the following chapter, a conceptual map is drawed into detail points, problem statement and research questions are mentioned as well. Last but not least, the chapter of Methodology decribes a method of research method, instrument design, data collecting, data measuring and analysing. Chapter 1. Company Description The full name of the company is Shanghai Hongqiao Yuanyi Hilton, which is a joint venture business with Yuanyi Group and Hilton Worldwide.Yuanyi Group is the owner of hardware facilities and real estate, Hilton hotels ; resorts is a managerial role in the property. The company is a sub-brand of Hilton worldwide, which is Hilton hotels ;amp; resorts. It is a full service five star hotel which opened in October of 2010. The facilities of the hotel are complete, plush and luxury. The company is located in Hongqiao Economic and Technical Development Zone, is just 15 minutes from Hongqiao Airport (Terminal I) and 13km from People's Square in the hea rt of Shanghai.Apart from the above events, there is a buffet restaurant Essence indulging in fine Pan Asian and Mediterranean cuisine at the all-day and sample authentic Cantonese dishes at Yue Xuan which is an a la cart restaurant. Additionally, Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao provides a business center, lobby lounge Pulse, Delicatessen, Vine Bar, fitness center and a stay connected Executive Lounge to satisfy the diverse needs of the guests The company places marketing emphasis on both business travelers and leisure travelers, and also Japanese guests which is a main market for the company itself.There are over 500 work members in this company, which including foreigners, locals and also staffs from other cities in China. Most of the head office managers and directors are foreigners. Full-time contract employee accounts for 72. 8%, and the part-time contract employee takes up12. 4 percentage in this company mostly in banqueting and Essence restaurant and the trainees occupy 14. 8 percen tages. The company is a newly opened hotel, and the executive building was just partly open in April, 2012.The biggest problem of the Human Resource Department is the talent gap. In order to attract more new interviewees, every Wednesday is the company Open day and people can go to the Human Resource department to hand in their CVs without an appointment. Through the monthly employee party, it can be seen that there are always new staffs join in the Hilton family. As the information shared from the HR assistant manager, the staff turn over of year 2011 was 13. 1%, it is higher than the average hotel staff turn over rate which is 10% in Shanghai (Fang Xu, 2010).The turn over of head office employees in this company is also very high, during the period of the author's internship, the General Manager, Director of Finance, Director of the operation, Director of business development, F;B manager, Front Office Manager, three Duty managers played job-hopping to another company. There are 1 1 levels accounted in Hilton, such as GM is the highest level which is 11 and trainee is level one. The salary of the trainee is 1,000RMB, around 120 per month. The biggest employee amount is level three, the average salary is 2,800RMB (=â‚ ¬346) per month, supervisors are at level 5 which can own 3,400RMB (=â‚ ¬419. ) per month. As an example gave within duty managers, the salary of foreigner' is three times than the Chinese employee in the same level position. A following SWOT analysis table shows an overall idea of the company's both internal and external conditions. The internal part includes Strengths and Weaknesses. The Strengths are more focuses on the company facilities and around the environment. For instance, the golf court is a big strong point of Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao, which is just in a walking distance. The weaknesses are mostly from the guest complains.For example, the 80RMB of parking fee is a big guest complains in this company and it happens almost everyda y. Three separated buildings are a weak point because it is very complicated for the guests to find the direction. The service quality is a frequent criticism object from customers. The external part is focused on the financial environment and competitors. Shanghai attracts 215 million domestic tourists and 8. 5 million foreign tourists in 2010. In addition, tourism revenue of Shanghai in 2010 is 305. 3 billion RMB (Shanghai tourist development report, 2012).There are 44 five-star hotels and 64 four-star hotels in Shanghai and 11 five-star and 7 boutique hotels are building up. Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao won the ‘Top Seller' in September 2012 in Asia Pacific area. The company has a lot of opportunities and it is a great time, but also it is facing with various challenges. Table 1. Chapter 2. Project Exploration During a period of 10 months, it turned out that it apparently it was difficult for employees to finish their tasks within the required time resulting in having to work o ver time.In hotel operation departments, there are three shifts, in general, morning shift staffs working from 7am till 3pm, the afternoon shift from 3pm till 11pm, and the rest hours are evening shift. However, most of the employees in Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao will spend quite long time in the shift turnover period, and it leads directly to work overtime in everyday and in every department. Furthermore, these over hours will not be counted into paid overtime working. Front office is not the only department, but it apparently most frequently in the company.Moreover, as it was written in the previous chapter, the turnover rate in Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao is higher than the average rate. Especially in front desk department, since 2011 November till 2012 September there were 5 employees quitted their job who had worked there over one year and 9 trainees had not worked over 6 months which means they quit before they became a formal staff. It be seen through the first two sentences writt en in the introductory chapter that working overtime is very normal in China and the reality shows it is a truth in Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao.This project is trying to identify the relationship between working overtime and job satisfaction, and enhance to give the managers of Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao a further consideration of monitoring overtime working and improving employee satisfaction. Meanwhile, job satisfaction is a source of long-term competitive advantage in the hospitality industry, by the core values of Hilton Worldwide which is described as Hospitality, Integrity, Leadership, Teamwork, Ownership and Now, each values have a strong connection with job satisfaction.For the Hilton Shanghai Hongqiao, this management project could be a helpful way to get more involved into employee satisfaction and measuring overtime working as well. Chapter 3. Literature Review This chapter concentrates in working overtime and job satisfaction. Figure has an intuitive feeling to compare the di fferent hours of working overtime in different places, so the first paragraph research figures to give an overview of working overtime in selected places and according to law and compare with China's situation.The following two paragraphs are in an attempt to find out who works overtime, and the reasons of people work overtime. Furthermore, the job satisfaction of different genders, the importance of job satisfaction and the relationship between job satisfaction and overtime working will be reviewed in the last paragraph. Last but not least a conceptual model covers the main point which includes the literature review. 3. 1 Working overtime In this part, the definition of working overtime is given, and some figures of overtime hours in different countries and a table of standard and maximum working hours for comparison.Working overtime is normally approved in advance by the Head of Department and is agreed in order to complete work for a deadline or to meet additional demands. Howeve r, the initial periods of less than half an hour are not classified as work overtime. Additional hours or overtime will not qualify for payments until the member of staff has worked to their number of basic contractual weekly hours (Working additional hours and overtime, 2011). Pascal and Damien (2000) found that about 20% of European employees work 45 or more hours a week, and about 13% of the full-time employee's weekly work over 50 hours.Long work hours are also a common phenomenon in the United States: more than 1/4 of US men and 11% of women work more than 50 hours a week (Jacobs ; Gerson, 2004). In addition, extreme overtime work is pervasive in Korea and Japan where many employees work more than 60 hours a week (Amagasa, Nakayama, ; Takahashi, 2005). A reach showed that there are only 13. 7 percent worked for no more than eight hours a day in China, 40. 3% worked eight to nine hours, 23. 48 percent put in nine to 10 hours a day and 22. 0 percent worked more than 10 hours (Xin hua News Agency, 2006). In generally overtime work is a common phenomenon in both Asian and Western countries. Working overtime also occurs in developed countries both in Asia and Western. Moreover, China has the most numbers of populations who work over 8 hours everyday which accounts at 86. 3%. The following figure gives a clear picture of the standard working hours in selected places, and the maximum overtime hours allowed in the law and also the overtime pay rate. |Table 2. | | | |Selected places |Standard working |Maximum overtime hours allowed |Overtime pay rate | | |Hours | | | |Finland |8 hours/day |Up to 138 hours within a period of 4 months |1. 5 times of the regular rate of pay for the first two hours | | |40 hours/Week |Up to 250 hours during a calendar year. |2 times for any extra hours. | | |The yearly maximum can be exceeded at 80 hours on a local agreement. | | |France |35 hours /week |Up to 220 hours per year. |Each hour of overtime is payable at 10% to 50% higher than the | | | |This limit may be exceeded with a collective agreement between the employer |regular hourly rate, depending on the cumulative total overtime | | | |and employee. |hours worked. |Ireland |48 hours /week |No specification of legal maximum overtime hours The actual working hours |No statutory obligation on employers to pay employees higher rates | | | |may fluctuate considerably as long as the average working hour per week is |for overtime works. | | | |not more than 48 hours over 4, 6 or 12 months (depending on circumstances) | | |Japan |8 hours /day |Up to 2 hours per day for jobs this may cause harm to health. No lower than the rate stipulated by Cabinet Order within the range| | |40 hours/week | |of no less than 25% and no more than 50% over the normal wage per | | | | |hour or per day. | |Malaysia |8 hours /day |Up to 4 hours per day except under special occasions. |1. 5 times of the regular rate of pay. | | |48 hours /week | | | |Singapore |8 hours /day |Up to 72 hours per month |1. 5 times of the regular rate of pay. | |44 hours/week | | | |South Korea |8 hours /day |Up to 4 hours per day |1. 5 times of the regular rate of pay. | | |40 hours /week |Up to 12 hours per week. | | |Taiwan |8 hours /day |Up to 4 hours per day and 46 hours per month. |; 2 hours, at least an additional 1/3 of the regular hourly rate. | | |84 hours two week | |2

Distribution and constiuents of fluids Essay

Constituents of body fluid – The human body consists mostly of water, and is a major constituent to the human body and vital organs; of this 90% include blood plasma, lymph, urine, saliva, digestive juices, bile, cerebrospinal fluid and tissue fluid. Water enables substances to be transported throughout the body, red blood cells for example, as wells as supplying the medium required for metabolic reaction to take place (respiration). Without water the progression of these fluids would not be possible. Water is constantly being transported between the fluid compartments of the body. Water has five main functions in the body, of which includes: ‘Cell life – distribute nutrients to cells i.e. vitamins, minerals and glucose Chemical and metabolic reactions – removal of waste products (toxins) from the organs Transport of nutrients – participates in the breakdown of food Body temperature regulation – water has a large heat capacity that allows it to help limit any changes to an individual’s body temperature in a certain environment. For example the release of heat when the surrounding temperature is higher than body temperature Elimination of waste’ Urea – Urea is an organic molecule made up of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. Urea is a common constituent of blood and other various bodily fluids, and is formed from ammonia in the kidney and liver. Ammonia is produced through the breakdown of proteins during tissue metabolism. Metabolic reactions that take place within the body can produce a surplus of amino acids of which can be converted into the waste product otherwise known  as urea through the process of deamination in the liver. Proteins obtained through an individual’s diet are broken down into amino acids. The excess amino acids made during this process are unable to be stored in the body as they can become toxic; therefore they would then have to be converted into a less toxic urea before ultimately being removed as a component of urine. Acids, bases and salt – Acids are a substance that has a pH less than 7. There are two different types of acid: Weak acid – An organic compound with a minimal amount of dissociated molecules Strong acid – An organic compound with a large amount of dissociated molecules Acids are a corrosive substance with a pH less than 7. Acidity is caused by a high concentration of hydrogen ions. Bases are a substance with a pH higher than 7, and have a high concentration of hydroxyl ions. Bases can react with acids in order to neutralise them in order to form salt and water. Bases are normally metal oxides or metal hydroxides. Sodium hydroxide for example is a base. Acids react with reactive metals in order to make a salt. Salts are a compound formed by the neutralisation of an acid by a base, for example metal oxide. This is a result of hydrogen atoms in an acid being replaced by positive ions. Bases that have are able to dissolve into water are known as alkalis. Sodium hydroxide is an alkali as it dissolves in water, copper oxide cannot dissolve water therefore is not an alkali. Hydrochloric acid is produced in the stomach, consisting of chloride and hydrogen. Carbonic acid is produced in red blood cells consisting of carbon dioxide and water, of which is why demanding exercise can lead to the  increase in the acidity of the individual’s blood. Control of osmosis – Salts are a major constituent of blood, and the levels both inside and outside of the cell, of which can be controlled by ATP. The sodium salts and chloride ions are continuously pumped back out of the cell each time they enter a cell, whereas potassium are pumped back into the cell as they leave a cell. The movement of salts enable the individual in assisting osmosis through the cell membrane. Isotonic Osmotic pressure outside the cell is equal to that inside of the cell. Water moving into and out of the cell is the same. Hypotonic Osmotic pressure is lower. Water moving into the cell is greater than that of which is moving out of the cell. Hypertonic Osmotic pressure is higher. Water moving out of the cell is greater than that of which is moving into the cell. Role of electrolytes – Electrolytes are compounds that dissociate into ions when they are dissolved in water, thereby causing them to become electrically charged particles, meaning that they have the ability to conduct electrical impulses. The electrical impulses created are what the body needs in order to make muscle cells contract. Electrolytes can become either cations (positively charged) or anions (negatively charged). Essential minerals – Some electrolytes are considered essential minerals, meaning that they are unable to be made within the body and are an essential part of health. The major constituent for a cell is potassium The components of amino acids and proteins Chloride is needed in order to produce hydrochloric acid in the stomach Magnesium of which can be found in bone and teeth, plays a key role in the contraction of muscles as well as an activator for various enzymes. Another component of bone and teeth is phosphorous and calcium, with calcium being required for blood clotting along with aiding in the contraction of muscles. There are trace elements present in the body. These essential minerals are required in only small amounts. The food and fluids consumed by an individual contain mineral salts, which are used to form electrolytes which dissolve in the fluids of the body. Electrolytes can be found in blood, urine, in the fluid contained in the body’s cells, and in the fluid surround the cells. Sodium, calcium, chloride, magnesium, potassium are the most commonly found electrolytes within the body. Electrolytes play a key role in helping the heart, nerves, and muscles to function. They also play role in keeping fluid levels normal in different body compartments. Levels of electrolytes in the body’s fluid compartments are controlled through the movement of electrolytes moving into/ out of the compartments. The kidneys have a hand in filtering electrolytes from the blood in order to keep the levels constant. Hormones such as the antidiuretic hormone and parathyroid hormone for example, help to regulate electrolyte balance. Acid-base balance – In order to function properly the blood needs the right balance between acid and basic (alkaline) compounds. This is known as acid-base balance. The kidneys and lungs within the body work in order to maintain acid-base balance; the slightest of variations from its normal range can have detrimental effects to the body’s vital organs. Acid and alkaline levels are measured on a pH scale. Increase in acidity can  cause pH levels to fall, whereas an increase in alkaline levels causes pH levels to rise. pH – pH measures the amount of hydrogen ions that are in a given solution. The pH scale ranges from the values of 1 to 14. Number 7 in the scale is known as neutral, water for example is a neutral substance. From 1 to 7, the lower the number on the scale the stronger the acid; whereas from 7 to 14 the higher the number the stronger the base. Importance of maintaining hydrogen concentration in body fluid – Hydrogen ion concentration is important to the structure and function of living systems. Slight changes can cause changes in ‘larger molecules and molecular complexes composing organisms.’ Buffer systems are put in place in order to maintain and stabilise the pH of body fluids. Phosphate buffers – These chemical buffers are essential in order to maintain normal hydrogen concentration in intracellular fluids, as their concentration inside the cells are many times greater than the concentration of the bicarbonate buffers. Metabolic activities are controlled by enzymes, of which can also be known as organic catalysts. Protein buffers – Are similar to the composition of phosphate buffers, as they include haemoglobin, are especially important within the cells. Chemical buffers of the body fluids are the first line of defence to prevent any changes in hydrogen ion concentration; any acid/base added to the body fluids immediately react with the buffers in order to prevent any changes in acid-base balance. Buffer systems – Chemical buffers are in place in order to resist changes in pH levels, and are the body’s first line of defence. A buffer solution is a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid; and is used to stabilize the pH of a liquid. The ability of an acid-base mixture  resist sudden changes in pH is known as buffer action. Tissue cells and vital organs of the body are sensitive to the slightest of changes in the pH environment; and in high concentrations, acids and bases can be highly damaging to living cells. Buffer solutions are put in place as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant level in various chemical applications. One such buffer solution can be found in the blood. Several buffering agents bind hydrogen ions in order to stop any change in pH. Extracellular buffers include bicarbonate and ammonia, and intracellular buffers include proteins and phosphates. Buffers are in place in order to work against sudden and large changes in the pH of body fluids by Releasing hydrogen ions when the pH increases (acids) Binding hydrogen ions when the pH decreases (bases) There are three main chemical buffer systems in the body: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system Phosphate buffer system Protein buffer system Solutes – Materials can be transported between the cytoplasm and the outside of the cell; this is known as the active transport process (ATP), whereas the movement of other molecules is known as passive transport which does not require energy. Active transport can be used in order to get the molecules to go against the concentration gradient; this can be done by either facilitated diffusion or osmosis. Passive transport of molecule depends on its ability to be able to pass through the cell membrane, as well as that of the concentration gradient which allows molecules to diffuse from an area of high concentration to an  area of low concentration. Molecules such as gases, lipids and water have the ability to pass through the cell membrane fairly easily. However other molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and ions do not have the same ability. Some of these molecules can enter and leave the cell through the use of facilitated transport, where the molecules can move down the concentration gradient through protein channels in the membrane. This process does not require any form of energy. Role of water in relation to properties – Specific heat capacity – Water has a large heat capacity which aids in limiting any changes in an individual’s body temperature in a warm or cold environment. As a result of the high specific heat capacity of water, its role in temperature regulation is very important. Water enables the body to release heat when the ambient temperature is higher than that of the individual’s body temperature. The body starts to sweat, and the evaporation of water from the skins surface occurs, in order to cool the body down. Surface tension – ‘Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force. ‘For example the floating of some objects on the surface of water, even though they are denser than water, some insects however have the ability to run on the water’s surface. The cohesive forces of liquid molecules are responsible for surface tension, and are responsible for many of the behaviours of liquids. In addition, water has adhesive properties, so that the pleural fluid which covers the membrane of the lungs stops them from sticking to the inside of the ribcage. Distribution of water – There are two main fluid compartments in the human body: Intracellular fluid (ICF) Extracellular fluid (ECF) Water is the major solvent of all body fluid compartments. Total body water averages around 60% body weight in young males and 50% of body weight in young adult females. The percentage of body weight that water occupies depends on the amount of adipose tissue (fat) an individual has. The overall water in the body involves water inside of the cells known as intracellular fluid (ICF compartment), found inside the bilayered cell plasma membrane which is around 28 litres, which makes up around 60% to 67% of body water; and the extracellular water located outside of the cells which is around 14 litres makes up the other 33% to 40%. Tissue fluid also known as the intracellular and the interstitial fluid have the majority of the component of the extracellular fluid as it has 11 litres compared to 3 litres of plasma. The lymph has 10% of the tissue fluid that form in the remainders of the plasma. ECF is composed of fluid outside of the cells and consists of three subdivisions: Interstitial compartment Plasma compartment Third space (transcellular fluid) The interstitial compartment is the fluid space which surrounds the cells of a given tissue, and is filled with interstitial fluid. Interstitial fluid allows for the movement of ions, proteins, and nutrients across the cell membrane. The fluid is continuously recollected by the lymphatic channels. Excess fluid in the interstitial compartment causes oedema to develop. Intravascular plasma can be found within the vascular system and makes up a fourth of ECF. The third space is part of the ECF compartment and is otherwise known as transcellular fluid. Examples of third space include: Peritoneal fluid Pleural fluid Cerebrospinal fluid Synovial fluid Renal tubular fluid Intercellular fluid is the main component of extracellular fluid; ‘other components include plasma and transcellular fluid. Intercellular fluid surrounds the body’s cells, and provides a way for delivering materials to the cells, intercellular communication, and removal of metabolic waste. The fluid found in the intercellular spaces are made up of water, amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, coenzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts and cellular products. ‘ Plasma makes up approximately 25% of the body’s total extracellular fluid. Plasma proteins serve several functions, of which include maintaining the proper distribution of water between the blood and tissues; transportation of nutrients, metabolites, and hormones throughout the body, defending against infection etc. Diseases can alter the amount of plasma proteins that are produced and their concentration in the blood. Role of intercellular fluid in homeostasis – In homeostasis, intercellular fluid also known as interstitial and tissue fluid, plays a vital role as the fluid is pushed out of the arterial end of the capillary by the blood pressure, after the blood has been pushed out through the muscular arterioles and capillaries. During this stage carbon dioxide is low. Tissue fluid flows around the cells and in between giving out raw materials through the use of osmosis, facilitated diffusion and diffusion etc. The metabolic waste is passed in the opposite direction to the cells and into the tissue fluid. However if the waste materials were allowed to accumulate, this could ultimately cause disruption and lead to the cells dying before death occurring. References http://www.nestle-waters.com, (2014). Functions of water in human body. [online] Available at: http://www.nestle-waters.com/healthy-hydration/water-fonctions-in-human-body [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Bbc.co.uk, (2014). BBC – GCSE Bitesize: Acids and bases. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa/acids/acidsbasesrev1.shtml [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Biology-online.org, (2014). Intercellular fluid – definition from Biology-Online.org. [online] Available at: http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Intercellular_fluid [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Chemical Buffer Systems- Acid-Base Balance. (2014). Boundless. [online] Available at: https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/fluids-and-acid-base-balance-26/acid-base-balance-248/chemical-buffer-systems-1217-4810/ [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Healthline.com, (2014). Acid-Base Balance | Definition and Patient Education. [online] Available at: http://www.healthline.com/health/acid-base-balance#Overview1 [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Inkling.com, (2014). Inkling. [online] Available at: https://www.inkling.com/read/medical-physiology-rodney-rhoades-david-bell-4th/chapter-23/fluid-compartments-of-the-body [Accessed 22 Oct. 2014]. Inkling.com, (2014). Inkling. [online] Available at: https://www.inkling.com/read/marks-medical-biochemistry-lieberman-marks-4th/chapter-45/i–plasma-proteins-maintain [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Media.lanecc.edu, (2014). Chemical Buffer Systems and Acid-Base Balance. [online] Available at: http://media.lanecc.edu/users/driscolln/RT127/Softchalk/Acid_Base_Lesson/Acid_Base_Lesson4.html [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Research.vet.upenn.edu, (2014). Milk Urea Nitrogen. [online] Available at: http://research.vet.upenn.edu/DairyPoultrySwine/DairyCattle/MUN/MilkUreaNitrogen/tabid/1596/Default.aspx [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Ensminger, M. and Ensminger, A. (1993). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, Two Volume Set. 2nd ed. CRC Press, 1993, p.4. Cnx.org, (2014). OpenStax CNX. [online] Available at: http://cnx.org/contents/75987407-1137-404b-9a3c-00d115b2dff9@3/Body_Fluids_and_Fluid_Compartm [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Fastbleep.com, (2014). Chemical principles: Properties of water – Biochemistry | Fastbleep. [online] Available at: http://www.fastbleep.com/biology-notes/40/116/1166 [Accessed 13 Oct. 2014]. Howard Perlman, U. (2014). Surface Tension (Water Properties), USGS Water Science School. [online] Water.usgs.gov. 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School Shootings

Situation On February 14, 2018, Nikolas Cruz massacred 17 students of Stoneman Douglas High School. Since then, politicians, grieving mothers and fathers, and average citizens are at odds with one another over what should be done to prevent such a catastrophe from happening again. In today's world of perceived division, animosity, and public policy debate, it seems now more than ever that school shootings are a hot button issue. In 2018, websites and organizations with political agendas argue that anywhere from 15 to 18 school shootings have happened in the U.S. while those with opposing beliefs say that those incidents have been exaggerated or isolated incidents either near or off a school campus. Since the shooting at the University of Texas (1966) to the Columbine (1999) shooting to most recently the Stoneman Douglas (2018) school shooting, acts of violence are becoming more and more common. School shootings perpetrated by youth (16-25) are a concern and researchers have investigated what causes individuals to perform such actions. Years of research, investigating, autopsies, and psychological evaluations can be, to a degree narrowed down into two causes of school shootings; Individual factors affecting troubled youth and social/cultural influences. While many would argue that there is no definitive cause of school shootings, it seems that most suspects involved experienced some sort of contribution at the psychological or communal level. The researchers who have data to back their argument are hopefully going to be instrumental as to determine a cure or implement preventative measures to make sure a school shooting can either never happen again or reduce the number of incidents/casualties. Researchers: Argument of Individual Factors Affecting Troubled YouthThe consensus among most researchers is that the suspect suffers from mental health issues. Dr. McGee and Dr. DeBernardo, both forensic examiners, believe that â€Å"school shooters† can usually fit a common criteria due to their research of adolescents responsible for school shootings from 1993 to 1998. Both agree that through their research, the â€Å"shooter† is a â€Å"normal† adolescent coming from a middle class, white neighborhood of around 50,000 people. They have a somewhat high IQ and come from a type of broken home (divorce, separation, etc.). It isn't until that they investigated what the child was experiencing pre-incident that caused concern. The adolescent will experience low self-esteem, disconnect from their peers, and some sort of psychological stressor. These stressors/factors all culminate into â€Å"triggering† the suspect into them believing that the only way to respond to recent trauma is to enact violence on whoever they believe is the cause for such conflict. In the case of Charles Whitman who was the perpetrator of the University of Texas massacre, he murdered the ones closest to him, his wife and mother for debatable reasons while Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold took revenge on their entire school. Glenn W. Muschert, author of â€Å"Research in School Shootings† examines the multitudes of contributing factors of school shootings and states â€Å"A variety of causes may contribute to school shootings †¦ even if direct causality may not be established.† (Muschert, 67) While he believes that there is no definitive cause, mental health is the primary point of argumentation. Continuing with the trend of individual factors affecting troubled youth, another pivotal cause that researchers can identify besides mental health problems is peer humiliation/bullying. Mr. Kimmel and Mr. Mahler, authors and contributors to â€Å"Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence† examine the societal impacts of possible school shooters at the peer level, stating â€Å"In conducting our analysis †¦ because they were different from the other boys—shy, bookish, honor students, artistic, musical, theatrical, nonathletic, â€Å"geekish,† or weird.† (Kimmel Mahler, 1445) Contrary to mental health, the argument of these authors is that the influence doesn't happen personally from psychological issues but those around them. In their research, most school shooters are suburban caucasian males in suburban neighborhoods and the influence is from students use of derogatory, homophobic slurs to ridicule these kids and repress their individualistic qualities. Eventually this contributes to the triggers discussed with mental health and the peer humiliation/identity becomes the cause. Another quote from a researcher contributing to the argument that bullying creates school shooters states â€Å"Is there something disturbing about the fact that children expect that their schools will have high levels of gay bashing, slut bashing, violence against girls, racism, and violence against those who are less able or otherwise â€Å"different†?† (Klein,233) Jessie Klein believes through experimentation, statistics and testimonials from victims of bullying, this hurts the individual in such a way that the only recourse is through violence in the form of school shootings. Argument: Social, Media, External Influences Lead to School ShootingsWhile the argument from a multitude of researchers and scholars that mental health and bullying are the preliminary factors that cause school shootings, other researchers examining the same topic have come upon the hypothesis that external factors are to blame. The first would be the media's coverage of school shooters upon apprehension. The national news and tv coverage gives the belief that those who commit school shootings are regarded as celebrities within the nation's spotlight on them. Since the Columbine Shooting the news provides national news to inform America about what is currently happening but students who are currently experiencing a rough patch of bullying, declining mental health, and other things see this as an opportunity to gain the attention of all who are drawn to national disaster. Video games are believed by many to glorify and give possible shooters a platform to commit such an act without consequence leading to the belief that violence in schools is the next step. McGee, J. P., ; DeBernardo, C. R. The classroom avenger: A behavioral profile of school based shootings. The Forensic Examiner, (1999). 8(5-6), 16-18. (2018)Muschert, G.W., Research in School Shootings. (2007) vol. 1, issue.1, 60-80Kimmel, M. S.; Mahler, M. Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence. (2003)k vol. 46, issue. 10, 1439-1458Klein, J., The Bully Society: School Shootings and the Crisis of Bullying in America's Schools. NYU Press. (2012) School Shootings In this paper it looks at some previous school shooting that have happened in the United States. It looks at the shooters, and also look at theories of what possibly could’ve been their motives for commenting such a tragedy, taking innocent lives. The paper looks at what we have learned and what we can do to prevent future school shooting tragedies. It looks at how bullying has pulled the trigger and how kids just want to be heard. The paper looks at what psychologist and criminologist have to say about future shootings and past shooters.It looks at the copycat effect and how the 1999 Columbine High School shooting has set the tone and gained such attention that people have attempted or made notion that there will be an attempted repeat. Keywords: School shootings are a tragedy that does not cross many minds in America until one occurs. The people who end up involved never imagine something like that happening to them, and the ones that go unaffected by the situation continue to ignore it. This is a major problem in America today.But we can’t really fix what we don’t know what to fix, looking back on these tragedies that take place in schools. We see don’t see nothing but a cold blood killer, but looking deeper than what the naked eye sees on the surface, we have saw that many of the shooters that have shot up schools in the past have been victims. They have been victims of harassment, depression, and anger that has been built up. They have stated warning signs but people in society tend to ignore and blow the warning signs off like nothing could ever happen.That is until all the built up anger and resentment from being bullied, feeling alone, and depressed seem to outburst in to horrific tragedies. The Columbine Shooting. America’s most deadly school shooting took place at Columbine High School in 1999. Two boys named Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold opened fire on their classmates killing which 14 classmates and teaches life go t taken away that day when Harris and Klebold entered their school. They also took their own life after the horrific act (Phillips, 2006). It is said that the two killers were plotting this soon to be known tragedy for two months.Right after the shooting happened, it was discovered that one of the gunmen had an internet site talking about killing. The website talked about making pipe bombs on the website it stated that â€Å"pipe bombs were some the easiest and deadliest way to kill a large group of people. † The site also referred to NBK which was an event that that was approaching where the pipe bombs would be used. It’s said that the two boys were a members of an antisocial group that are referred to as the â€Å"Trench Coat Mafia† there was supposedly a group of ten students that wore long coats and dark sunglasses all the time.Classmates of the two killer’s state that they were jerks and that they were strange. They didn’t really talk to anyon e else at the school, they were considered to be outcasts (Marshall, 1999). Shooters who were victims of bullying. One in particular shooting is a prime example that bullying can send someone over the edge. The shooting took place at Heath High School in west Paducah Kentucky in 1997. The shooter was Michael Carneal who claimed he was bullied and he opened fire on the school prayer group, shooting eight of his classmates.When Carneal was asked why did he do it? He said he was sick of being bullied and picked on (Deadly lessons: Understanding, 2003). Carneal stated that he was talked down to and humiliated and even physically tormented. He was brought to his breaking point due to bullying. Michael Carneal wasn’t just the only one that has opened fire in school due to being bullied. Alleged shooter Charles Williams who took the lives of two students injuring thirteen others when he opened fire at a Santana High School in Santee California in 2001.It was the deadliest shooting i n the United States since massacre that took place at Columbine High School in 1999. Williams had a fit depressingly common profile for children in trouble in the United States Schools according to psychologists and the schools security. The teen was a social outsider whose angry lethal threats were taking as jokes by his friends and family. Richard Butterworth a psychologist who studies United States school shootings, states that the consciousness that are in kids today is shooting is the way to manifest their anger.Since the Columbine school shooting schools have been so afraid of a fire in their hallways, they have put extinguishers everywhere. But yet they have done nothing to what are causing the fires, these kids are mad and they don’t know what else to do states Butterworth (Quinn, 2001). Eric Chester a Denver based teen expert stated that Williams â€Å"appears to be another distraught, disengaged, disenfranchised kid who wanted people to take notice of him† (Q uinn, 2001).Williams was a 15 year old who was described as â€Å"a skinny kid who got picked on a lot† some of his other aquanauts described him as an outsider who was a nerd, but others state that he was well liked. One classmate Jessica more says people called him â€Å"freak, dork, and nerd† (Bradberry, 2001). These two examples of school shooters were not the only victims that felt like they had to open fire inside hallways to be notice or heard. Sad to say they will probably be more that are victims of being bullied and will feel as this is the only way.The Copycat Effect. Since the Columbine High School shooting they seem to be an outburst of copycats that have been found with bomb making material in their passion, people who have made threats to do something Columbine like, to people found just days before their plots that are columbine like and are about to be take place and have been stop due to tips to the officials. The recent school shooting that took plac e a Sandy Hook Elementary School where 28 in total lost their life including the shooter himself and his mother.From the evidence gathered at the house of alleged shooter Adam Lanza, there was no goodbye letters nor a tell all letter. No motive was giving as to why Lanza opened fire in an elementary school full of innocent kids, from the news the day of the shooting no one really knew of an Adam Lanza which means he was antisocial probably. However the officials and investigators did discover he was a twenty year old boy who was obsessed with mass killers. The most odd and dark disturbing thing investigators and officials recovered at Lanza’s house was Lanza’s fascination with the 1999 Columbine High School shooting.The Columbine massacre was like the center of Lanza’s obsession that had to do with mass shootings. According to the Newtown report, Lanza had â€Å"hundreds of documents, images, and videos pertaining to the Columbine High School massacre. † He also had downloaded videos about the two gunmen (Pearce, 2013). During an analysis of school shootings between the years 1999-2007 Professor Ralph W. Harkin of the John Jay College of Criminal Justice at City University of New York found that 8 out of 12 school shooters â€Å"directly referred to the Columbine shooting† (Pearce, 2013).Seung-hui Cho just right after the Columbine High shooting, Cho was an eighth grader when he had supposedly written a disturbing English paper and in it he stated that he wanted to make a repeat of the Columbine shooting eight years after that paper he opened fire on the campus of Virginia Tech College and took the lives of 32 people including his own. Which passed the Columbines total body count with flying colors, even though it was at a college. He still was in the train of thought while he was in grade school which wasn’t many years later after the Columbine shooting.Like one Criminologist warned in 2007 after the Virginia Tech sho oting â€Å"records exist but to be broken† (Pearce, 2013). Theories behind the purpose of kids and teenage killers. Although there are a lot of theories on why kids and teenagers go on killing sprees at schools, no one can really put a finger on to why they go on their killing sprees taking innocent people’s lives. A big theory is that they are bullied and that’s the only one that makes sense to a lot of unknown motives of past mass killers that go on killing sprees at schools.They are out casters that can no longer stand the bullying and humiliation, and just want to be heard. They feel as if the only fix to being heard and notice is pack guns to school and unleash the hurt and angry they feel to the bullies, even though they tend to take innocent people’s lives that haven’t done nothing to them in their path to destruction. Some theories state that they just want the fame weather they take their own life in the process or they pay the price livi ng. Other theories blame mental illness, some theories blame numerous things all at once.They were mental ill and got picked on and they went unheard, so they wanted to get famous to get notice and heard. But nobody can actually pin point what has exactly triggered todays youths killing sprees. James Alan Fox a Criminologist professor at Northeast University in Boston states â€Å"Nothing is different about kids† although fifty years ago, a kid that has been getting bullied or is a victim of being bullied is more likely to take their anger out by going on a vandalism spree rather than to pick up the nearest gun they can get their hands on and go on a killing spree (Khadaroo, 2013).What has been learned and what can help prevent school Shootings. Shootings at educational institutes are tragic and a shocking thing for the United States. For the most recent big massacre that took place at Sandy Hook Elementary, there have been many discussions on what we can do to prevent someth ing so horrific from happening again. But in the reality a lot of people find themselves asking can anything really be done to prevent such horrific things like school shooting from happening?An article the is prepared by Dr.  Daniel J. Flannery at Case Western Reserve University and colleagues the article contains an examination of the past studies on the topic that’s main focus is on â€Å"targeted† and â€Å"rampage† or â€Å"spree† shootings. The article finds that there is some characteristics shared from past shooters. Shooters shared characteristics like narcissism, depression, low self-esteem, and a fascination with violence. There isn’t however enough distinctive similarities to create a distinctive profile for a future potential shooter (Springer, 2012).The authors came to a conclusion, that the most effective way to possibly prevent these kind of tragedies is through a threat assessment. An assessment which requires fundamental testing , such as suicide risk, homicide risk, thought process, reality testing, mood and behavior, as well as social and developmental histories. Another key is to pay close attention to an obsession with violence and firearms. Even though this may seem obvious, but the resources that are provided to mental health school officials don’t provide for these assessments.The other conclusion that the authors have come to, is that the mental health officials and adults need to take threats of violence seriously, just like they have been doing to the suicide threats (Springer, 2012). Conclusion. The conclusion we have come to by the end of this paper on school shootings is, that majority of the shootings that have happened have been outburst of anger and just of direr need of wanting to be heard. Although there isn’t many clear motives, almost in every case the shooter have or has been bullied or has been an out caster.We’ve learned that the Columbine High School shooting has set the bar high for the high body count and even though that was surpassed at the Virginia Tech shooting. The Columbine gave school shootings a new tone. Sure we could crack down on guns and make stricter laws toward them. But the Columbine shooters made it clear that if someone really knew how to make a good bomb they could just as well kill people. There are rules about being tougher on bullying but there’s always going to be bullying going on no matter how much we suspend kids, press charges against them it might take away some of the bullying.But it will still be there. A lot of these shooters just wanted to be heard and they felt as opening fire in the hallways of school was the only way to get people to listen. So even though there isn’t a lot we can do in prevention of these horrific crimes we can still look for a solution. School shootings can happen in any community in this country. What people don’t realize is that it can happen in a flash, it doesnà ¢â‚¬â„¢t matter how many awards the school gains for being an efficient school, it doesn’t matter how many good people they’re in the community.There is always a left out person an out caster that has been a victim or is being a victim as we speak that just wants someone to hear them out but this country don’t seem to listen even when they do make threats. Some shooting the shooters have clearly said something bad was going to happen, that they were going to do something. But there again no one would listen people just think yeah right you couldn’t and you wouldn’t. But in reality they are being dead serious. Every threat needs to be taken serious and the one that makes the threats needs people to take time to listen to what they have to say, to what they are feeling.

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Effects of Human Dimension on Organisational Behaviour - Essay Example The paper, therefore, makes it possible to define the best means of managing organizational behaviour through the simple task of managing attitudes and motivation.   This is because Walton (2007) noted that it is not all forms of organizational behaviour that promotes growth. Drory & Ritov (1997) noted that attitudes are evaluative judgments or statements made about people within an organization. This means that attitude embodies people’s habitual nature, readily associated or identifiable with them within the organization. The attitudes of people, however, do not always come in one form as there are three key components of attitude common with organizational members. The first component is the cognitive component, which Canary, Coach and Serape (2001) noted to be the form of attitude that highlights people’s opinion and beliefs. Because of the relationship between cognitive component of attitude and opinion, it is often seen as a means by which people give personal e valuation on actions that take place within the organization (Samovar and Porter, 2011). A typical example is the evaluative attitude of people when there is a promotion at the workplace. In such situations, employees are likely to evaluate the promotion as either being deserving of the person or not. Where the person’s evaluation says the person promoted did not deserve the promotion, chances are that a negative attitude will be developed towards that person. Meanwhile, where  there is a negative attitude, an organizational behaviour may be negatively affected due to the possibility of frequent organizational conflict.

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A Look at Shanghai, Chinas Education System - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that  Chinese education highly depended on examinations at different levels. There were no formal institutions because only the socio-economically privileged and financially capable can afford such. Because of this system’s openness regardless of family background, the Civil Examination â€Å"drove almost all families...to have high hopes for their children’s future†.  As the paper stresses China’s education system had endured its hard times and struggled for its revival. The Cultural Revolution is traced as the root where China’s educational system was ruined in the country’s effort for so-called egalitarianism, which unfortunately backfired. When the revolution ended, the late 1970s and the 1980s were years of recovery in both economic and educational aspects. Schools started to open in various places, achieving universal primary education. Some cities like Shanghai opened vocational schools, and eventual ly China established a degree system for higher education. From the 1990s up to today, primary schools in China have high enrolment rates, as well as junior secondary schools. One of the noteworthy maneuvers in the system is China’s decentralization of education by providing different textbooks in the regions, but having the same universal primary education. In the 21st century, the system concentrates on higher education by mandating the increase of enrolling population. Confucianism in Chinese Education Confucius, regarded as a great Chinese thinker, was not concerned with man’s relationship to God or the universe, but rather emphasized on the importance of establishing the â€Å"conditions for an ethical society than to seek to answer answerable questions† (Ornstein & Levine, 2008, p.60). He created an educational system that had high regard for ethics and proper behavior, and respect for hierarchical relationships. He associates character education

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MBA - Essay Example To manage change is tough but the actual problem lies on the fact that there is no or little agreement regarding the factors which transforms the initiatives in organization (Metre, 2009, p. 1). There are authors who have stressed upon the fact that the main reason for failure of initiatives is due to resistance to change. Resistance to change often tends to include delays as well as cost into the change process. But resistance is also considered as useful source of information which helps in the development and learning process of the organization in a successful way. It has been proved that resistance to change is one of the key subjects in managing change in an organization (Val & Fuentes, n.d). Also with an increasing globalization, change in technology and deregulation along with a shift in the socio cultural trends, thus few would like to dispute that the most important task for the management is the leadership of managing organizational change (Todnem, 2005, p.2). Therefore in this context it becomes increasing necessary to reflect on the type, extent and change both for small and big organization in order to survive and thus sustain themselves in the changing business environment (Sengupta & Bhattacharya, 2006, p.1). Objectives The main objective in conducting the study is to find out whether change is important in the process of the development of the organization in the era of globalization. The following objectives will be discussed in order to confirm that the review of literature supports the given objectives. To determine why change is necessary The need for organizations to change and the forces of change To determine to what extent are the initiatives proposed are successful Description of the research The research on managing change in the organizations in the 21st century has been mainly taken from secondary sources especially books and other academic sources. Apart from books and academic sources some journals were also used. Mostly books wer e used because journals were not available at an ease like books. Some of the books and academic source includes, Metre, C. (2009). Deriving Value From Change Management. Griffin, R. W. (2011). Fundamentals of Management. Cengage Learning Zeffane, Rachid. (1996). Dynamics of strategic change: critical issues in fostering positive organizational change. Smith, Ian. (2005). Achieving readiness for organizational change. Key Findings The report mainly focuses on analyzing the fact that managing change is essential for organization in the 21st century in order to success and stay ahead of its competitors and achieve a competitive advantage. GE has managed to apply changes in its organization by following the process by Lewin’s notion (1947) which includes unfreezing, refreezing and movements were some of the essential components of change. The model primarily focused on the role of the leader in the process of creating change as well as communicating and crafting the vision, lead ing it and finally measuring progress of the change implemented across the dimensions of is organization. Figure 1: GE 7 step change model (Source: Metre, 2009) In addition to GE, the changes that has helped P&G reached at the top level is also been discussed (ICMR, 2004). Part B Summary of

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Principles of magic and the mechanical philosophy Essay

Principles of magic and the mechanical philosophy - Essay Example Additionally, there was enchaining or bonding. The images that he presents are very detailed with various planetary natures that are always in action. The central point of these images is to communicate to the pneuma which is the astral body of the human beings and also the spirit. The soul of the person who views these images is attracted by them and thus apprehends them thus giving the person knowledge and wisdom. Therefore, the emphases for Bruno is the fact that there are always chains and bonds formed that are capable of communicating to the human soul. The chains and bonds that are supreme he referred to as vincula in his magic. He further goes on to say that: â€Å"There are three gates through which the hunter of souls [animarum venator] ventures to bind: vision, hearing and mind or imagination. If it happens that someone passes through all three of these gates, he binds most powerfully and ties down most tightly† (Bruno, 1997, p.155).In her book, the death of nature, Carolyn Merchant attempts to document the ecological and economic changes that were ongoing in Western Europe in the late 16th and early 17th century. Sweeping changes in both ecology and technology made it possible for there to be material conditions which facilitated the existence of new ideas. Although she cautions that her argument does not wholly support that material changes did not necessarily lead to ideological changes, she says that there are some ideas that appear more prevalent than others in a given period of time.in time. Furthermore, she claims that some ideas like those associated with magic and an organic view of the world become less compelling whereas the mechanical approaches are developed and adopted. There seems to be a back and forth argument in The Death of Nature between the social conditions as well as material conditions associated with nature and science. The strongest ideas are however those that are in support of the

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Management Information System and Users Essay Example for Free

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Environment Essay: The evolution of the linkage between the environment and human rights The United Nations (UN) Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, declared that: mans environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rightseven the right to life itself. Today, the relationship between the environment and human rights has long been recognised and has evolved in many ways. This essay will attempt to analyse the connection between the environment and human rights. Because of limitations on length, it will broadly place human rights within the framework of a holistic view of development (i.e., one that lends importance to more that simply economic development). It will also discuss their relationship within the discourse of Sustainable Development, a principal concept linking the environment and human rights. The UN Conference on the Human Environment was held at a time when development discourse was dominated by theories of dependency, world systems, and modes of production. The Stockholm conference importantly acknowledged that environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, and in that capacity established not just the importance of sustaining the environment because it provides for life and basic human rights, but also the importance of sustaining basic human rights in an attempt to defend the environment. Though the need to protect the environment had long been recognised, this conference paved the way for the environment and development to be discussed as a single issue something that did not occur until the Brundtland Report in 1987. The Brundtland Report launched the term Sustainable Development (SD), or development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs (WCED, 1987: 43). Although it is often regarded as a dangerously slippery concept (The Economist, 2002) the common characteristic of most definitions of the term is the emphasis on equity both across and within generations. Barrow (1995: 17) identifies ten themes that characterise conventional SD: maintenance of ecological integrity; integration of environmental care and development; adoption of an international stance; satisfaction of basic human needs for all; stress for normative planning; stress on application of science to development problems; acceptance of some economic growth; attaching a proper value to the natural and cultural environment; the adoption of a long-term view of development; and, again a call for inter- as well as intra- generational equality SD has introduced and affirmed many new concepts into the development arena including, but not limited to, a rights-based approach to development and the importance of the environment. The environment played a central role in the Brundtland Report, and it was subsequently attacked for being eco-centric. The Brundtland Report was followed up by the UN Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Though the Rio conference set in motion a trend towards human (rather than environmental) rights, it still held the environment in the limelight. Moreover, rights to information, participation and remedies in respect to environmental conditions formed the focus of the Rio declaration (Shelton, 2002: 2), thus accentuating the importance of human rights in environmental protection. Since Rio, concern for the environment has (rightly) continued to grow. However, the tendency toward concern for human rather than environmental rights within the sustainable agenda (i.e., a growing concern for the intra- (as opposed to inter-) generational equality) has continued as it is acknowledge that we cannot ignore the deprived today in trying to prevent deprivation in the future (Anand and Sen, 2000: 2030). Many of the alternate definitions of SD have tried, with varying degrees, of success, to resolve the seemingly contradictory notion inherent to SD development frequently involved capitalist or industrial development, and thus the reference to sustainability is certainly then undermined by the paradox of what this type of development means for the environment (Redclift, 1987). Conventional wisdom holds that Southern nations are too preoccupied with economic survival to worry about environmental quality (Dunlap: 1994: 115), something that was, to some extent, reflected in the Rio conference. Governments of developing countries wanted to discuss the idea of development, and the governments of richer countries that of sustainability (to the neglect of development) (Dunlap: 1994: 115). Though economic development need not be unequivocally associated with environmental degradation it must also be recognised that nations (or perhaps more importantly, people within nations) will rightly put more focus on sustaining peoples well-being than the environments. In short, though some government policies in the developing world may be viewed as inconclusive because they fall short of protecting natural resources, such seemingly irrational policies may reflect economic necessity in countries that have little choice but to perpetuate practices that contribute to environme ntal degradation in the absence of alternate sources of income (Bryant and Bailey, 1997: 59). This view of environmental protection versus human rights was pertinent at the UN World Summit on Sustainable Development (or Rio + 10), held in Johannesburg in 1992. In the run-up to the summit African leaders made it clear that they expected to talk about jobs, not birds (The Economist, 2002b). The Economist stated that without concrete or pragmatic action to fight poverty, fine words on greenery, global warming or fish stocks will come to naught (The Economist, 2002b). In other words, sustaining deprivation cannot be our goal (Anand and Sen, 2000: 2030), and whilst surely the conditions for most of the worlds poor can be sustained, the issue is that they should not be (Marcuse, 1998: 106). SD is often received with hostility in LDCs where it is seen as an attempt to challenge the developing worlds elemental right to develop: after all, grinding poverty, it turns out, is pretty sustainable (The Economist, 2002b). The achievement of environmental protection and respect for human rights can only be reached if we do not succumb to the notion that they are mutually exclusive. Human life, and human rights, cannot exist without a relatively healthy environment, and the environment cannot be protected without the acceptance and protection of basic human rights. Though aspects of each may at times need to be sacrificed for progress in the other, it remains vital to navigate the obstacles and move towards a sustainable world. Bibliography Anand, S. and Sen, A. (2000) Human Development and Economic Sustainability, World Development, 28 (12), 2029-2049.Barrow, C. J. (1995) Sustainable Development: Concept, Value and Practice, Third World Planning Review, 17(4), 369-386.Bryant, R. L. and Bailey, S. (1997) Third World Political Ecology, London: Routledge.Dunlap, R. (1994) International Attitudes Towards Environment and Development, in Helge Ole Bergensen and Georg Parmann (eds.), Green Globe Yearbook of International Co-operation on Environment and Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press), 115-126.Marcuse, P. (1998) Sustainability is not enough, Environment and Urbanization, 10(2), 103-111.Redclift, M. (1987) Sustainability: life chances and livelihood, London: Routledge.Shelton, D. (2002) Human Rights and Environment Issues in Multilateral Treaties Adopted between 1991 and 2001, background paper for the Joint UNEP-OHCHR Expert Seminar on Human Rights and the Environment, Geneva, 14-16 January 2002.The E conomist (2002) The Johannesburg Summit: Sustaining the poors development, 29 August 2002.The Economist (2002b) Africa expects to talk about jobs, not birds, 22 August 2002.WCED (1987) Our Common Future, The Brundtland Report, Oxford: Oxford University Press. State Of Nature: Hobbes And Locke State Of Nature: Hobbes And Locke Thomas Hobbes and John Locke applied fundamentally similar methodologies and presuppositions to create justifications for statehood; both have a belief in a universal natural law made known to man through the exercise of reason, which leads to political theories that define the rise of states. From beginning to end, Hobbes and Locke struggle to answer the essential question: Can sovereignty be divided? Though the two authors answer this question by going through the same processes, they begin with distinct notions of the state of nature, thereby reaching divergent conclusions: two nuanced versions of the social contract. For Hobbes, sovereignty is absolutist and governance can only succeed if power is concentrated in a monarch. On the other hand, Locke envisions a radically different structure for government, with a strict division between legislative and executive forces. At a glance, it is difficult to determine which author better answers the question of sovereignty, but by compar ing the warrants beneath their claims, one comes to discover that Locke is correct. Indeed, sovereignty must be divided. To start, one must analyze the model of undivided sovereignty. Hobbess argument for the state is that at some point, constituents of society made a contract amongst themselves to surrender most of their natural right up to a single man, the monarch, establishing a sovereign power in their newly formed commonwealth (Hobbes 110). By permutation, children must obey the sovereign because they are subject to their parents by the natural law, meaning subjection to the sovereign power passes on from one generation to the next (Hobbes 127-35). What constitutes a commonwealth is a group of individuals and their progeny, who are all subject to the sovereign power. This, however, begs the question of exactly what constitutes the sovereign power, since natural right can be forfeited in both different ways and in varying degrees. Hobbes provides two answers to this question, the latter directly expanding upon the former. The first is that Hobbes defines, albeit vaguely, that sovereignty is an entity bearing the person (Hobbes 105-110) of those subject thereto. Second, he argues in a more concrete manner, that sovereignty is the extensive set of powers to make laws, reward and punish subjects arbitrarily, choose counselors and ministers, establish and enforce class distinctions, judge controversies, wage war and make peace, and so on (Hobbes 113-15). Hobbes claims that by giving up their person to the sovereign, subjects forfeit the right to make moral judgments because every act of the sovereign is ostensibly performed by the subjects. The monarch becomes the sole, absolute judge of whatsoever he shall think necessary to be done, both beforehandà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and, when peace and security are lost, for the recovery of the same and what opinions and doctrines are averse, and what conducing, to peace (Hobbes 113 ). In other words, citizens may never criticize the sovereign, since subjects surrender their very ability to judge whether the sovereign power is acting towards the goals for which they established it. This is a major contradiction in Hobbess theory, for it seems strange and inconsistent that men of the commonwealth are wise enough to establish a state for mutual benefit (Hobbes 106), but straightaway upon entering the social contract, lose the ability to accurately judge whether their condition is good or bad. Although there is such a clear inconsistency within the contract, Hobbes has a two-pronged defense ready. The first is in Chapter XVIII, where he asserts that once covenanted, men cannot lawfully make a new covenant amongst themselves to be obedient to any other, in any thing whatsoever, without permission from the sovereign (Hobbes 110-1). With the way that a Hobbesian social contract works, this claim makes perfect sense; if a covenant is formed by submitting ones person to the sovereign, men cannot form a new covenant independent of the sovereign because they have already given their single person-hood up. Following the person argument, Hobbes introduces the idea that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦because the right of bearing the person of them all is given to him they make sovereign by covenant only of one to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Hobbes 111). The philosophers second defense then, is the fact that the sovereign is not party to the actual contract, which means that the monarch can never breach it, no matter the consequences. For Hobbes, the contract is the permanent transfer of person from a group of people to an external man, not a retractable agreement among a group of people to obey one of their party. The agreement, strangely, is only amongst the governed their agreement is to all equally forfeit their person and aligns with Hobbess notion that there must be an external, superior enforcer to contracts. Yet, it is unclear why social contracts should be irrevocable: in Hobbess own account of contracts (Hobbes 79-88), a contract is always renounceable if the parties involved agree so, meaning there should be nothing stopping subjects from uniformly nullifying the contract. Hobbes would respond that social contracts are unique, for the subjects have given up their right to make contracts (and therefore to break them) without the sovereigns permission within the terms. This, however, begs another question: why is the ability to make epistemological and moral judgments a necessary forfeiture to establishing the commonwealth? It doesnt seem logical that the right to break contracts must be a necessary forfeiture included within the person that one gives to the sovereign. After all, it falls under a set of negative-rights that requires a negative action (IE, a violation of the terms of contract) to occur before it can be used. Hobbes simply refuses to acknowledge the binary choice he creat es between civil war and good government is specious at best. The agreement to forfeit person is made equally amongst subjects to escape the state of nature, but even if the sovereign is not a part of the contract, the fact that a citizen doesnt receive the benefits termed within the contract ought to justify breaking the contract because other citizens may be receiving those benefits. If so, wouldnt it be just for a subject to break the contract, not with the sovereign, but with other subjects? Moving on from Hobbess derivation of sovereignty, one comes upon his formulation of sovereignty, the terms of his social contract. What is most shocking is that sovereignty is indivisible (Hobbes 115): the foundational elements of rule cannot be separated. All the powers of sovereignty must reside in the same body. A division of government, to Hobbes, would be redundant at best. From a theoretical point of view, when push comes to shove, a part of government, namely whichever has control of the army, will be revealed as the real holder of sovereign power precisely because it can seize control of the other powers. However, control of the army is nonexistent without the ability to fund it, so taxing and the coining of money is also essential. Imagine a scenario of rebellion or invasion in a divided government: an external force capable of protecting the taxing/treasury department would eventually rout the branch that controls the military. In order to ensure a stable government, then, it would be necessary to concentrate power at one locus using the example of the military any division would allow for opposing factions to gut one another, albeit indecisively. Combining the fact that sovereignty is indivisible with the fact that the social contract is made amongst subjects (that there is no bond between subjects and the sovereign), one arrives at Hobbess insistence that rebellion is never justifiable. Sovereignty is located in a person and not obedience to a person, so any repudiation of that obedience cannot dissolve the bond of sovereignty, for there is no bond to begin with. Nevertheless, this descriptive account of separating sovereign powers is not a normative claim that it ought not be done. This is perhaps Hobbess biggest mistake, for he believes that when, therefore, these two powers oppose one another, the commonwealth cannot but be in great danger of civil war and dissolution, for example, that the civil authorityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and the spiritual inevitably clash if divided (Hobbes 216). That is, we ought not separate the two, for sovereignty is conceived of as something that one simply has, meaning several branches of government would constantly be in contest for possession of sovereignty. However, this is an excellent example of the is-ought fallacy, for Hobbes bases the fact that historically, a division of government has always resulted in a collapse to monarchy, and attempts to re-justify the existing norms. The fact that civil and spiritual authority have historically clashed does not mean that they cannot avoid conflict in the future. If so, then Hobbess reason that they ought be combined falls apart. In essence, his claim is not normative, but only descriptive. Locke begins his attack on Hobbess concept of sovereignty by advancing a different conception of the state of nature. For Hobbes, in the state of nature à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war (Hobbes 76), where à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦nothing can be unjust for where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice (Hobbes 78). It is in Chapter XIII that he famously notes that the life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short, a product of the condition of warà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(in which case everyone is governed by his own reasonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[where] man has a right to everything, even to one anothers body (Hobbes 80). It is from this anarchic view that Hobbes departs to create a theory of absolutist sovereignty. Individual rights, ironically, conflict to the point where there are no rights in the state of nature. To solve this proble m, Hobbess model forfeits person to an individual, because even two individuals two rulers with person will have conflicting rights claims. On the other hand, Locke paints a calmer picture of the state of nature, arguing that the state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, whichà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦teaches all mankindà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions (Locke 9). Locke attack on Hobbess descriptive analysis of the state of nature is particularly damning because it has never occurred. Locke furthers that his notion of the state of nature is historical, that great societies began in the way that his theory described. He cites that the beginning of Rome and Venice were by the uniting of several free and independent of one another, amongst whom there was no natural superiority or subjection (Locke 54). This is because Locke believes that this moral nature has been instilled in humanity by an infinitely wise makerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦sharing all in one community of nature, there cannot be supposed any such subordination (Locke 9). Unlike Hobb es, who believes there is no ethical frame for punishment during the state of nature, Locke argues that transgressing the law of nature means one declares himself to live by another rule than that of reason and common equity, which is that measure God has set to the actions of men (Locke 10). Locke believes that every man hath a right to punish the offender, and be executioner of the law of nature to criminals in the face of God. From a philosophically rigorous perspective, Lockes justifications are a copout to constructing a normative frame. But at a descriptive level, he may be correct: both Hobbes and Locke agree that it is through reason that mankind transcends the state of nature and enters a state of sovereignty. An elementary comparison of these two versions of the state of nature boils down to the fact that Hobbess interpretation is one that begins with a lack of reason and Lockes starts with reason programmed into mankind by a maker. Is it not possible that the Lockes state of nature simply follows Hobbess? Indeed, in Hobbess model, man must come upon reason prior to entering the social contract, meaning as a collective, they must eventually reach some form of Lockes state of nature. Whether God exists or not, a social consciousness must develop for both authors to successfully continue their theories. This returns us to the epistemological contradiction presented earlier in the fourth paragraph: why do men lose their ability to analyze the benefits of subjugation to a sovereign, if they needed to attain this level of rational deliberation to have accepted the social contract to begin with? It is because Hobbes ignores this concern, but Locke answers it (albeit with God, rather than a development of rationality, as I suggest), that Lockes interpretation of sovereignty is far more convincing. It is easiest to discuss Locke by making a series of modifications on Hobbess theory of sovereignty. Of course, the difference between the two theories is far more complicated, but in regards to the thesis, it is sufficient to identify three very closely-related, key differences. First, Locke dismisses Hobbess assertion (which I have showed to be contradictory multiple times) that subjects give up the right, in fact, the ability, to judge their sovereign when moving from the state of nature to sovereignty. Effectively, Locke makes the contract a two-way agreement instead of a one-way subjection, termed in his works as fiduciary power in Chapter XIII. Second, for Locke, ultimate sovereignty resides always in the people. One on hand, the supreme sovereign will always be God, but beneath his throne, men can delegate power to one another, but there will never be a permanent hierarchy of power. The supreme power of the legislature is amassed from a conditional grant by the people; every m an is bound by its laws, notwithstanding disagreement. By extension of this logic, Locke makes two foundational claims of his notion of sovereignty, which Hobbes does not adopt: one is that no part of the sovereign government will ever be above the law, the other is that power can be retracted from the government at any time, pending agreement of the people (these derivations are explored in detail in Chapters VIII and IX). The third and, perhaps most important, difference is that for Hobbes, sovereignty is a perpetual, indivisible power belonging to a particular individual. Indeed, this disagreement is the crux of this paper. For Locke, there are a variety of powers necessary for the protection of the public good, just as in Hobbes, but there is no need to unite them all in one body. Here Locke presents idea of the sovereignty of law itself: there is no need, that the legislative should be always in being, not having always business to do (Locke 76). The laws have a constant and lasting force, and need a perpetual execution that is provided by the executive power (Locke 76). While Hobbes agrees to the need of these aspects of sovereignty, he refuses to divide them. Locke, on the other hand, demonstrates that a division of labor can very feasibly exist, especially because he touches upon the idea of a natural power that pertains to other duties. Federative power, which relates to the power of war and pe ace, leagues and alliances, and all transactions (Locke 76), could easily be invested in entirely separate bodies from both the executive and legislative powers. The last question to answer, then, is whether the division of power is good. Luckily, Locke tackles this issue, arguing that the inconveniences of absolute power, which monarchy in succession was apt to lay claim to could never compete with balancing the power of government, by placing several parts of it in different hands for in doing so, citizens neither felt the oppression of tyrannical dominion, nor did the fashion of the age, nor their possessions, or way of livingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦give them any reason to apprehend or provide against it (Locke 57). For Locke sovereignty is the supreme power on loan from the people to the legislative to set laws that look after the public good by dividing duties amongst the executive and other governmental agencies. Power is easily, helpfully, and safely split up into different bodies: easily due to Lockes dismissal of Hobbess contradictory objection to doing so, helpfully because the division of labor allows for increased efficiency and greater pr oductivity, and safely because the division of powers acts as a set of checks and balances to protect the people from arbitrary abuse. Just as it seems that the question Can sovereignty be divided? is answered, a concession of sorts to Hobbes appears with the concept of prerogative, a powerful modification of the way Lockes theory functions in practice. Locke concedes in Chapter XIV that the natural generality of law makes it inapplicable to certain cases and unable to cover every eventuality. The executive is therefore invested with prerogative, the power to act according to discretion, for the public good, without the prescription of the law, and sometimes even against it (Locke 84). It is possible that Hobbes would see this as an admission that Lockes legislative theory is flawed, that the executive does indeed hold supreme power, as both creator and enforcer of laws. This, however, would be a serious misinterpretation. In many ways, Locke disagrees with Hobbes most sharply on this point. Lockes emphasis on the need of governance to provide for the public good is so strong that he argues any violation of the social contract, by the sovereignty, would be grounds for the dissolution of government. He notes that citizens will be willing to cope with the application of prerogative as long as it aligns with the public good, even if they recognize that there is no legal precedence for the actions. While Lockes discussion of prerogative initially appears to be a return to Hobbesian absolutism, it is their most essential disagreement. In Hobbess theory, prerogative is sovereign authority, with no external check. When the sovereigns prerogative fails to lead towards the public good, subjects have no recourse but simply accept things. For Locke, prerogative is a minor modification of the authority delegated from the people to the legislative and thence to the executive. It is not crucial to the existence of g overnment because should subjects find that the executives application of prerogative does not lead to the public good, they can simply retract authority from the sovereignty. When compared with the work of Thomas Hobbes, John Lockes social contract theory comprehensively proves that government can be separated into several branches. By comparing the steps in their methodologies, along with analyzing their different starting points, one arrives at the conclusion that Locke is right. As this paper progressed, it was revealed that Hobbes made two main objections to a divided sovereignty: first, his notion of the forfeiture of person and second, his negative view of human behavior in the state of nature. Hobbess latter objection was easily answered back by comparing Lockes interpretation of the state of nature and demonstrating that the standard of reason created a double bind for Hobbes. Either his state of nature transitioned into a Lockean state of nature, which would then progress to sovereignty, or, a jump must occur from a Hobbesian state of nature straight into absolute sovereignty, which creates a number of contradictions. The former objection was ans wered on multiple levels, ranging from the is-ought fallacy to Lockes strong defense of a system of sovereign checks-and-balances. By juxtaposing Hobbes and Lockes social contract theories, one can decisively conclude that sovereignty can be divided, not only to two branches, but to as many as necessary for the public good. The version of Leviathan cited in this work is the Edwin Curley edited edition. The version of Second Treatise is the same as the one noted on the syllabus.